diff options
| author | Prefetch | 2026-09-05 21:55:33 +0200 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Prefetch | 2026-09-05 21:55:33 +0200 |
| commit | 5cacf4ffaf3a9621ab536195f6469f98a420f054 (patch) | |
| tree | 317b734468a287c50d2403fdfafa45434f538150 /source/know/concept/pauli-exclusion-principle | |
| parent | 29b49508a751649310173e592b63415dbf563a2a (diff) | |
Diffstat (limited to 'source/know/concept/pauli-exclusion-principle')
| -rw-r--r-- | source/know/concept/pauli-exclusion-principle/index.md | 117 |
1 files changed, 67 insertions, 50 deletions
diff --git a/source/know/concept/pauli-exclusion-principle/index.md b/source/know/concept/pauli-exclusion-principle/index.md index 5b83b69..15130d9 100644 --- a/source/know/concept/pauli-exclusion-principle/index.md +++ b/source/know/concept/pauli-exclusion-principle/index.md @@ -8,57 +8,69 @@ categories: layout: "concept" --- -In quantum mechanics, the **Pauli exclusion principle** is a theorem with -profound consequences for how the world works. +In quantum mechanics, the **Pauli exclusion principle** is a theorem +with profound consequences for how the world works. Suppose we have a composite state -$$\ket{x_1}\ket{x_2} = \ket{x_1} \otimes \ket{x_2}$$, where the two -identical particles $$x_1$$ and $$x_2$$ each can occupy the same two allowed -states $$a$$ and $$b$$. We then define the permutation operator $$\hat{P}$$ as -follows: +$$\ket{x_1}\ket{x_2} = \ket{x_1} \otimes \ket{x_2}$$, +where the two identical particles $$x_1$$ and $$x_2$$ +each can occupy the same two allowed states $$a$$ and $$b$$. +We then define the permutation operator $$\hat{P}$$ as follows: $$\begin{aligned} - \hat{P} \Ket{a}\Ket{b} = \Ket{b}\Ket{a} + \hat{P} \Ket{a}\Ket{b} + = \Ket{b}\Ket{a} \end{aligned}$$ -That is, it swaps the states of the particles. Obviously, swapping the -states twice simply gives the original configuration again, so: +That is, it swaps the states of the particles. +Obviously, swapping the states twice simply gives the original configuration again, so: $$\begin{aligned} - \hat{P}^2 \Ket{a}\Ket{b} = \Ket{a}\Ket{b} + \hat{P}^2 \Ket{a}\Ket{b} + = \Ket{a}\Ket{b} \end{aligned}$$ -Therefore, $$\Ket{a}\Ket{b}$$ is an eigenvector of $$\hat{P}^2$$ with -eigenvalue $$1$$. Since $$[\hat{P}, \hat{P}^2] = 0$$, $$\Ket{a}\Ket{b}$$ -must also be an eigenket of $$\hat{P}$$ with eigenvalue $$\lambda$$, -satisfying $$\lambda^2 = 1$$, so we know that $$\lambda = 1$$ or $$\lambda = -1$$: +Therefore, $$\Ket{a}\Ket{b}$$ is an eigenvector of $$\hat{P}^2$$ with eigenvalue $$1$$. +Since $$[\hat{P}, \hat{P}^2] = 0$$, +$$\Ket{a}\Ket{b}$$ must also be an eigenket of $$\hat{P}$$ +with eigenvalue $$\lambda$$, satisfying $$\lambda^2 = 1$$, +so we know that $$\lambda = 1$$ or $$\lambda = -1$$: $$\begin{aligned} - \hat{P} \Ket{a}\Ket{b} = \lambda \Ket{a}\Ket{b} + \hat{P} \Ket{a}\Ket{b} + = \lambda \Ket{a}\Ket{b} \end{aligned}$$ -As it turns out, in nature, each class of particle has a single -associated permutation eigenvalue $$\lambda$$, or in other words: whether -$$\lambda$$ is $$-1$$ or $$1$$ depends on the type of particle that $$x_1$$ -and $$x_2$$ are. Particles with $$\lambda = -1$$ are called -**fermions**, and those with $$\lambda = 1$$ are known as **bosons**. We -define $$\hat{P}_f$$ with $$\lambda = -1$$ and $$\hat{P}_b$$ with -$$\lambda = 1$$, such that: +As it turns out, in nature, each type of particle has a single +associated permutation eigenvalue $$\lambda$$, or in other words: +whether $$\lambda$$ is $$-1$$ or $$1$$ depends on +the type of particle that $$x_1$$ and $$x_2$$ are. +Particles with $$\lambda = -1$$ are called **fermions**, +and those with $$\lambda = 1$$ are known as **bosons**. +We define $$\hat{P}_f$$ with $$\lambda = -1$$ and $$\hat{P}_b$$ with $$\lambda = 1$$, +such that: $$\begin{aligned} - \hat{P}_f \Ket{a}\Ket{b} = \Ket{b}\Ket{a} = - \Ket{a}\Ket{b} - \qquad - \hat{P}_b \Ket{a}\Ket{b} = \Ket{b}\Ket{a} = \Ket{a}\Ket{b} + \hat{P}_f \Ket{a}\Ket{b} + &= \Ket{b}\Ket{a} + = - \Ket{a}\Ket{b} + \\ + \hat{P}_b \Ket{a}\Ket{b} + &= \Ket{b}\Ket{a} + = \Ket{a}\Ket{b} \end{aligned}$$ -Another fundamental fact of nature is that identical particles cannot be -distinguished by any observation. Therefore it is impossible to tell -apart $$\Ket{a}\Ket{b}$$ and the permuted state $$\Ket{b}\Ket{a}$$, -regardless of the eigenvalue $$\lambda$$. There is no physical difference! +Another fundamental fact is that identical particles +cannot be distinguished by any observation. +Therefore, it is impossible to tell apart $$\Ket{a}\Ket{b}$$ +and the permuted state $$\Ket{b}\Ket{a}$$, +regardless of the eigenvalue $$\lambda$$. +There is no physical difference! -But this does not mean that $$\hat{P}$$ is useless: despite not having any -observable effect, the resulting difference between fermions and bosons -is absolutely fundamental. Consider the following superposition state, +But this does not mean that $$\hat{P}$$ is useless: +despite not having any observable effect, +the resulting difference between fermions and bosons is absolutely profound. +Consider the following superposition state, where $$\alpha$$ and $$\beta$$ are unknown: $$\begin{aligned} @@ -66,9 +78,10 @@ $$\begin{aligned} = \alpha \Ket{a}\Ket{b} + \beta \Ket{b}\Ket{a} \end{aligned}$$ -When we apply $$\hat{P}$$, we can "choose" between two "intepretations" of -its action, both shown below. Obviously, since the left-hand sides are -equal, the right-hand sides must be equal too: +When we apply $$\hat{P}$$, we can "choose" between +two "intepretations" of its action, both shown below. +Obviously, since the left-hand sides are equal, +the right-hand sides must be equal too: $$\begin{aligned} \hat{P} \Ket{\Psi(a, b)} @@ -78,25 +91,28 @@ $$\begin{aligned} &= \alpha \Ket{b}\Ket{a} + \beta \Ket{a}\Ket{b} \end{aligned}$$ -This gives us the equations $$\lambda \alpha = \beta$$ and -$$\lambda \beta = \alpha$$. In fact, just from this we could have deduced -that $$\lambda$$ can be either $$-1$$ or $$1$$. In any case, for bosons -($$\lambda = 1$$), we thus find that $$\alpha = \beta$$: +This gives us the equations $$\lambda \alpha = \beta$$ and $$\lambda \beta = \alpha$$. +In fact, just from this we could have deduced +that $$\lambda$$ can be either $$-1$$ or $$1$$. +In any case, for bosons ($$\lambda = 1$$), we thus find that $$\alpha = \beta$$: $$\begin{aligned} - \Ket{\Psi(a, b)}_b = C \big( \Ket{a}\Ket{b} + \Ket{b}\Ket{a} \big) + \Ket{\Psi(a, b)}_b + = C \big( \Ket{a}\Ket{b} + \Ket{b}\Ket{a} \big) \end{aligned}$$ -Where $$C$$ is a normalization constant. As expected, this state is -**symmetric**: switching $$a$$ and $$b$$ gives the same result. Meanwhile, for -fermions ($$\lambda = -1$$), we find that $$\alpha = -\beta$$: +Where $$C$$ is a normalization constant. +As expected, this state is **symmetric**: +switching $$a$$ and $$b$$ gives the same result. +Meanwhile, for fermions ($$\lambda = -1$$), we find that $$\alpha = -\beta$$: $$\begin{aligned} - \Ket{\Psi(a, b)}_f = C \big( \Ket{a}\Ket{b} - \Ket{b}\Ket{a} \big) + \Ket{\Psi(a, b)}_f + = C \big( \Ket{a}\Ket{b} - \Ket{b}\Ket{a} \big) \end{aligned}$$ -This state is called **antisymmetric** under exchange: switching $$a$$ and $$b$$ -causes a sign change, as we would expect for fermions. +This state is called **antisymmetric** under exchange: +switching $$a$$ and $$b$$ causes a sign change, as we would expect for fermions. Now, what if the particles $$x_1$$ and $$x_2$$ are in the same state $$a$$? For bosons, we just need to update the normalization constant $$C$$: @@ -114,7 +130,8 @@ $$\begin{aligned} = 0 \end{aligned}$$ -And this is the Pauli exclusion principle: **fermions may never -occupy the same quantum state**. One of the many notable consequences of -this is that the shells of atoms only fit a limited number of -electrons (which are fermions), since each must have a different quantum number. +And this is the Pauli exclusion principle: +**fermions may never occupy the same quantum state**. +One of the many notable consequences of this is +that the shells of atoms only fit a limited number of electrons (which are fermions), +since each must have a different quantum number. |
