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---
title: "Fundamental solution"
sort_title: "Fundamental solution"
date: 2021-11-02
categories:
- Mathematics
- Physics
layout: "concept"
---
Given a linear operator $$\hat{L}$$ acting on $$x \in [a, b]$$,
its **fundamental solution** $$G(x, x')$$ is defined as the response
of $$\hat{L}$$ to a [Dirac delta function](/know/concept/dirac-delta-function/)
$$\delta(x - x')$$ located at $$x' \in \: ]a, b[$$:
$$\begin{aligned}
\boxed{
\hat{L}\{ G(x, x') \}
= A \delta(x - x')
}
\end{aligned}$$
Where $$A$$ is a constant, usually $$1$$.
Fundamental solutions are often called **Green's functions**,
but are distinct from the (somewhat related)
[Green's functions](/know/concept/greens-functions/)
in quantum mechanics.
Note that the definition of $$G(x, x')$$ generalizes that of
the [impulse response](/know/concept/impulse-response/).
And likewise, due to the superposition principle,
once $$G$$ is known, $$\hat{L}$$'s response $$u(x)$$ to
*any* forcing function $$f(x)$$ can easily be found as follows:
$$\begin{aligned}
\hat{L} \{ u(x) \}
= f(x)
\quad \implies \quad
\boxed{
u(x)
= \frac{1}{A} \int_a^b f(x') \: G(x, x') \dd{x'}
}
\end{aligned}$$
{% include proof/start.html id="proof-solution" -%}
$$\hat{L}$$ only acts on $$x$$, so $$x' \in \: ]a, b[$$ is simply a parameter,
meaning we are free to multiply the definition of $$G$$
by the constant $$f(x')$$ on both sides,
and exploit $$\hat{L}$$'s linearity:
$$\begin{aligned}
A f(x') \: \delta(x - x')
= f(x') \: \hat{L}\{ G(x, x') \}
= \hat{L}\{ f(x') \: G(x, x') \}
\end{aligned}$$
We then integrate both sides over $$x'$$ in the interval $$[a, b]$$,
allowing us to consume $$\delta(x \!-\! x')$$.
Note that integration commutes with $$\hat{L}$$'s action:
$$\begin{aligned}
A \int_a^b f(x') \: \delta(x - x') \dd{x'}
&= \int_a^b \hat{L}\{ f(x') \: G(x, x') \} \dd{x'}
\\
A f(x)
&= \hat{L} \int_a^b f(x') \: G(x, x') \dd{x'}
\end{aligned}$$
By definition, $$\hat{L}$$'s response $$u(x)$$ to $$f(x)$$
satisfies $$\hat{L}\{ u(x) \} = f(x)$$, recognizable here.
{% include proof/end.html id="proof-solution" %}
In practice, $$G$$ usually only depends on the difference $$x - x'$$,
in which case the integral shown above becomes a convolution:
$$\begin{aligned}
u(x)
= \frac{1}{A} \int_a^b f(x') \: G(x - x') \dd{x'}
= \frac{1}{A} (f * G)(x)
\end{aligned}$$
While the impulse response is typically used for initial value problems,
the fundamental solution $$G$$ is used for boundary value problems.
Suppose those boundary conditions are homogeneous,
i.e. $$u$$ or its derivative $$\dot{u}$$ is zero at the boundaries.
Then:
$$\begin{aligned}
0
&= u(a)
= \frac{1}{A} \int_a^b f(x') \: G(a, x') \dd{x'}
\quad \implies \quad
G(a, x') = 0
\\
0
&= \dot{u}(a)
= \frac{1}{A} \int_a^b f(x') \: \dot{G}(a, x') \dd{x'}
\quad \implies \quad
\dot{G}(a, x') = 0
\end{aligned}$$
Where $$\dot{G}$$ is the derivative of $$G$$ with respect to its first argument.
This holds for all $$x'$$, and also at the other boundary $$x = b$$.
In other words, the boundary conditions are built into $$G$$.
What if the boundary conditions are inhomogeneous?
No problem: thanks to the linearity of $$\hat{L}$$,
those conditions can be given to the homogeneous solution $$u_h(x)$$,
where $$\hat{L}\{ u_h(x) \} = 0$$,
such that the inhomogeneous solution $$u_i(x) = u(x) - u_h(x)$$
has homogeneous boundaries again,
so we can use $$G$$ as usual to find $$u_i(x)$$, and then just add $$u_h(x)$$.
If $$\hat{L}$$ is self-adjoint
(see [Sturm-Liouville theory](/know/concept/sturm-liouville-theory/)),
then the fundamental solution $$G(x, x')$$
has the following **reciprocity** boundary condition:
$$\begin{aligned}
\boxed{
G(x, x') = G^*(x', x)
}
\end{aligned}$$
{% include proof/start.html id="proof-reciprocity" -%}
Consider two parameters $$x_1'$$ and $$x_2'$$.
The self-adjointness of $$\hat{L}$$ means that:
$$\begin{aligned}
\int_a^b G^*(x, x_1') \Big( \hat{L} \{ G(x, x_2') \} \Big) \dd{x}
&= \int_a^b \Big( \hat{L} \{ G(x, x_1') \} \Big)^* G(x, x_2') \dd{x}
\\
\int_a^b G^*(x, x_1') \: \delta(x - x_2') \dd{x}
&= \int_a^b \delta^*(x - x_1') \: G(x, x_2') \dd{x}
\\
G^*(x_2', x_1')
&= G(x_1', x_2')
\end{aligned}$$
{% include proof/end.html id="proof-reciprocity" %}
## References
1. O. Bang,
*Applied mathematics for physicists: lecture notes*, 2019,
unpublished.
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