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---
title: "Hellmann-Feynman theorem"
date: 2021-11-29
categories:
- Physics
- Quantum mechanics
layout: "concept"
---
Consider the time-independent Schrödinger equation,
where the Hamiltonian $\hat{H}$ depends on a general parameter $\lambda$,
whose meaning or type we will not specify:
$$\begin{aligned}
\hat{H}(\lambda) \Ket{\psi_n(\lambda)}
= E_n(\lambda) \Ket{\psi_n(\lambda)}
\end{aligned}$$
Assuming all eigenstates $\Ket{\psi_n}$ are normalized,
this gives us the following basic relation:
$$\begin{aligned}
\matrixel{\psi_m}{\hat{H}}{\psi_n}
= E_n \Inprod{\psi_m}{\psi_n}
= \delta_{mn} E_n
\end{aligned}$$
We differentiate this with respect to $\lambda$,
which could be a scalar or a vector.
This yields:
$$\begin{aligned}
\delta_{mn} \nabla_\lambda E_n
&= \nabla_\lambda \matrixel{\psi_m}{\hat{H}}{\psi_n}
\\
&= \matrixel{\nabla_\lambda \psi_m}{\hat{H}}{\psi_n}
+ \matrixel{\psi_m}{\nabla_\lambda \hat{H}}{\psi_n}
+ \matrixel{\psi_m}{\hat{H}}{\nabla_\lambda \psi_n}
\\
&= E_m \Inprod{\psi_m}{\nabla_\lambda \psi_n} + E_n \Inprod{\nabla_\lambda \psi_m}{\psi_n} + \matrixel{\psi_m}{\nabla_\lambda \hat{H}}{\psi_n}
\end{aligned}$$
In order to simplify this,
we differentiate the orthogonality relation
$\Inprod{\psi_m}{\psi_n} = \delta_{mn}$,
which ends up telling us that
$\Inprod{\nabla_\lambda \psi_m}{\psi_n} = - \Inprod{\psi_m}{\nabla_\lambda \psi_n}$:
$$\begin{aligned}
0
= \nabla_\lambda \delta_{mn}
= \nabla_\lambda \Inprod{\psi_m}{\psi_n}
= \Inprod{\nabla_\lambda \psi_m}{\psi_n} + \Inprod{\psi_m}{\nabla_\lambda \psi_n}
\end{aligned}$$
Using this result to replace $\Inprod{\nabla_\lambda \psi_m}{\psi_n}$
in the previous equation leads to:
$$\begin{aligned}
\delta_{mn} \nabla_\lambda E_n
&= (E_m - E_n) \Inprod{\psi_m}{\nabla_\lambda \psi_n} + \matrixel{\psi_m}{\nabla_\lambda \hat{H}}{\psi_n}
\end{aligned}$$
For $m = n$, we therefore arrive at the **Hellmann-Feynman theorem**,
which is useful when doing numerical calculations
to minimize energies with respect to $\lambda$:
$$\begin{aligned}
\boxed{
\nabla_\lambda E_n
= \matrixel{\psi_n}{\nabla_\lambda \hat{H}}{\psi_n}
}
\end{aligned}$$
While for $m \neq n$, we get the **Epstein generalization**
of the Hellmann-Feynman theorem, which is for example relevant for
the [Berry phase](/know/concept/berry-phase/):
$$\begin{aligned}
\boxed{
(E_n - E_m) \Inprod{\psi_m}{\nabla_\lambda \psi_n}
= \matrixel{\psi_m}{\nabla_\lambda \hat{H}}{\psi_n}
}
\end{aligned}$$
## References
1. G. Grosso, G.P. Parravicini,
*Solid state physics*,
2nd edition, Elsevier.
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